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Printing Process

Printing was invented as a means of creating an image for wider circulation.

In early prints and maps, there are three main printmaking styles:

Relief process: the earliest technique of the woodcut, and later wood engravings and linocuts, etc. The outline to be printed is cut way from the base "in relief". Printing is done by inking the image on the raised surface - the area not cut away.
Intaglio process: Line engraving, drypoint, etching, aquatint, mezzotint and stipple engraving. The outline is cut into a metal plate, or is bitten into the plate by acid, and the image is then produced by the pressure of forcing the ink to be taken up from the incisions of the carved image. This results in an intaglio impression or plate mark border.
Surface process: Printing by application of paper onto an image drawn on a prepared smooth surface. (e.g. Lithography)

Woodcut and Wood Engraving.

The woodcut was the earliest technique for the making of prints.

A woodcut is made by outlining a design on a smooth flat plank, and then cutting away the unwanted background with a knife or gouge. The "relief" or raised portions of the block are then inked and paper applied under pressure against the block. This method was used as early as the year AD 8 in China, but in Europe the earliest surviving examples of this printing method were found in Germany at the beginning of the fifteenth century, Germany having already established a reputation for wood-carving.

As minimal pressure was required and the surface of the block could be made the same thickness as the standard height of letter type, the method was particularly suitable for book printing, with text and illustrations produced with one operation. Printing from woodblocks gave a bold, simple, black and white finish, which could show little subtlety, shading or graduation of tone except in the hands of a master such as Hans Holbein or Albrecht Durer.

In the case of maps, the lettering was often cut separately in metal and fitted as required into holes in the wooden block. Maps could be updated by filling gouged areas of a block and re-cutting. Type was once again re-set as required. Woodcuts were employed for the printing of maps in Europe for over one hundred years.

The woodblocks could be used for many years, though the outline of the image gradually lost its initial clarity and boldness. Whilst woodcuts were produced on the soft smooth flat surface of a plank of wood, wood engravings were cut into the hard cross-grain of the wood, enabling finer detail and greater longevity of the block.

After many years of alternative more durable printing methods, there was a resurgence of woodblock printing towards the end of the nineteenth century for the economical printing of illustrations for news items in periodicals and encyclopaedias.

Copper Plate and Steel Engraving:

Copper Plate and Steel Engraving refer to prints inscribed (in reverse) with a sharp tool called a graver or burin, which is a small metal rod with a sharpened point. The burin is pushed across the plate forcing the metal up into slivers in front of the v-shaped line being carved. These pieces of metal are removed from the plate with a sharp-bladed instrument or scraper. A finer tipped burin was used for inscribing on the softer medium of copper. The difference in the resulting line-work is readily recognizable.

Ink is wiped across the plate, filling the lines that have been inscribed. The inked plate is covered with a piece of dampened paper and passed under pressure through two rollers and the printed impression is taken up from the ink-filled recesses of the plate.

One of the characteristics of an engraving is the intaglio impression or "plate mark" border, which is caused by the pressure of the edges of the metal plate during printing. When more than one image was engraved on one plate, or when the paper was not as large as the external area of the plate, this intaglio impression does not appear around each image.

After many years of engraving on copper plates in Italy for printmaking, from the middle of the sixteenth century when the centre of map production moved there from Germany, copper plate engraving superceded woodcuts in the field of map-making. It proved particularly successful in this field. In the case of some maps, the relatively soft copper plate was beaten flat from the back and re-engraved with updated information or details of a new publisher over a period of up to 150 years after initial production. Different states of an engraving assist in determining the source and publication date of a map or print.

Reputable antique print dealers are usually able to recognize the approximate age of paper from their years of experience in dealing with the early works. Later colour is also detectable even when it is done well and in the style of the original.

Although the art of engraving or incising into metal began in antiquity when the Greeks, Romans and Etruscans employed it for decoration, the use of engraved plates for making prints did not occur until about 1430 in Germany. This was the earliest intaglio method, and it was not until around 1830 that steel plates generally superceded the use of softer copper.

Lithograph.

Lithography, discovered in 1796, is a process based on grease repelling water. On a treated flat, smooth surface, usually limestone, an outline is drawn with a greasy chalk, zinc, or tallow. The stone is acid-etched to make it porous, then wet and the water is taken up by the stone, except where the image has been drawn. Ink is rolled onto the plate and adheres only to the drawn image. Paper is evenly applied to the stone, and takes up the image the image.

The lithographic printing method was not widely used for quantity production until after around 1820. The much-improved fluidity of line, enabled by the drawing of the image onto a smooth surface, resulted in the print somewhat resembling a sketch with a pencil. These were for many years hand-tinted by watercolouring at the time of publication, but as the years progressed this proved to be both slow and uneconomical. Lithography was generally introduced for map making during the latter part of the nineteenth century.

Lithographs were next printed in colour, and are referred to as chromolithographs. By the use of separate stones for different colours, multi-coloured prints could be obtained by carefully realigning the paper for subsequent over-printing, taking care to maintain the precise outline so that there should be no overlay of colour. For an exceptionally detailed work up to twenty-two different stones have been prepared.

Modern offset lithography is based on the same original principle of grease repelling water, with the design transferred photographically onto rollers. Modern photographic prints from early lithographs and engravings do not reproduce the original detail well, and although still decorative, when viewed through a magnifying glass they can be seen to be composed of thousands of separate dots rather than the continuous lines of the original work. Many modern lithographs have been deceptively given intaglio plate marks to create a decorative and antique effect.

These are the most common printing processes used for the circulation of maps. For more details on processes used for printing, check out the PRINTS section of our Art Emporium.

Later colour: The majority of copper and steel engravings were published uncoloured - particularly with the many views and reproductions of early paintings - whether of views or people. The most notable exception is with engravings of natural history subjects, although for reasons of economy many of these were also published in black and white.

Lithographs were either hand-coloured at the time of publication or, more recently, printed in colour. There are once again exceptions to this, when the original owner of the plates and over-runs has had these works coloured to the early specifications at a later date. The colour-printed images will always obviously be "original" colour.
In most cases, if the hand-colouring is well done, and is sympathetic to the style of the period of the original work, it will enhance the enjoyment of the image; and if auctioned alongside the uncoloured work would usually achieve a higher price. A purist, in not appreciating the later-coloured work, would be in the minority!

Identification of antique maps and prints.

An experienced dealer will usually be able to identify a work from its style alone. Once you become familiar with the artists, cartographers, and engravers (whose names often appear at the base of an image), you should begin to experience a sense of achievement when you are able to recognize the works for yourself.

The printing process often indicates an approximate date of publication. The style of the printing process often indicates the artist or technician. The paper gives an indication as to the age of a work. When there is a name, or words or dates printed within the image, or along the edge outside the top or bottom of the image, it is an even greater assistance. If there is printing on the reverse, the text will often assist in date or origin. All of these are the basic indications of a work's identity and age. None of the above, however, guarantees originality; as many later editions, even by venerable publishers, did not show a change in the attribution or date as printed on the original plate.

Even today, unless you are familiar with the composition of the paper used over the years, you cannot assume an image is an original antique print or map - particularly if you are viewing a framed work through glass. It is always wise to unframe a work prior to assuming even its condition, as damage from a poor framing process can then be detected.

A damaged work can also look quite presentable once framed. Although the damaged image would retain its decorative value, its investment value could be negatively affected, even halved, by the damage and/or its repair. In many cases however, a collector might be pleased to find the work to complete a collection, and might settle for it anyway until one in better condition could be found to replace it.

The printed surface.

The condition of a map or print depends to a great extent upon the quality of the medium on which it is printed. Whilst the good quality of early hand-made paper can be credited for the survival of the majority of antique maps and prints we see today; many earlier works were printed on parchment, which is quite durable medium if treated kindly. Technically, parchment is a writing surface prepared from the skin of a sheep or a goat. Nowadays, parchment is frequently wrongly attributed. Vellum, which was a particularly fine type of parchment made from calf's-skin, was also used.

Fine quality early print making was done on strong, thick, hand-made paper from France, Germany, Switzerland, and - finest of all - the Ancona area of northern Italy. The English tended to import their paper from France until 1610, when their native cottage industry began producing good-quality, hand-made paper. A pulped mixture of linen and rags was pressed onto a close-meshed, wire tray. The vertical and horizontal lines which are still apparent on holding the paper up to the light, are evidence of the wire mesh on which the paper was pressed, all those centuries ago.

Watermarks are sometimes present on the paper, which can help in dating the work. However, they may also be slightly misleading, as a single batch of paper was occasionally used over the duration of two or three decades. The absence of a watermark does not imply the work is a fake, nor does it have any affect on value.

Conservation and Preservation.

Maps and prints which are in good condition should be free of 'foxing', the small yellowish-brown spots which mark the paper. Although these may lend an aura of antiquity to the map, they unfortunately signal an unhealthy-state of affairs, being the result of fungi or foreign chemicals penetrating the fibres of the paper. The most common cause of foxing is mishandling, although exposure to dust or humid climactic conditions can produce a fungus which will lead to the rapid deterioration of the artwork.

To start on a more serious note, the most important thing to remember if you wish to preserve artworks in their optimum state, is that when presenting them whether by framing or in the simplest method of preservation for handling, we would suggest you only use conservation materials. When storing rare and fragile loose-leaf items such as antique maps and prints for preservation, it is wise to seal them from contamination within an acid-free conservation product. Conservation envelopes such as transparent milar or polyweld are great for handling and viewing, which of course increases the enjoyment of the purchase. Acid-free boxes are also available. If these products are not available, at least wrap the work in acid-free tissue before enclosing it from the weather.

If handling actual prints it is always wise to wash hands with soap first. Unfortunately, hands continuously exude oil and pick up dust and consequently, stain the paper - although the telltale results may not surface for many years, and will annoy long after the mishandling! Cotton gloves are usually worn by workers handling old paper in museums, and by collectors of valuable works of art.

Prints should be carefully handled by their extremities. Many early engravings and lithographs have been damaged by the smudging of the inked or coloured image through mishandling. Also, paper works are fragile. Take care not to damage them, particularly if there is already a slight marginal tear, in which case they would be more vulnerable. Try not to bend or dint prints as this also can leave a permanent mark. Any damage will affect the ultimate value of a work.

Framed works should be protected from impurities and therefore sealed off from the environment. Conservation materials are these days readily available, although they are a little more expensive than previous framing materials. For absolute protection, the corners of a frame's timber moulding should be closely articulated, and the back of the frame sealed along its edges with an acid-free tape. Most importantly, the matt-board which touches the actual printed work should be acid-free.

The wonderful world of antique maps and charts.

Embarking upon a new collection can be a thrilling affair. Whether one consciously decides to begin collecting rare maps, stumbles upon an old chart amongst the family papers, or is presented with an antique map as a gift, there is an incredible new world of awareness, information to be gleaned, and glorious images to be enjoyed. As with all truly satisfying collections, the wonder of discovery that is experienced the first time one sees an unusual or fascinating map, lasts a lifetime. Traditionally (and mistakenly) regarded as a male domain, cartographic collecting appeals to people of both sexes and all ages. Anyone with an interest in geography, history, art, genealogy or even general nostalgia can find him or herself spell-bound by antique maps and charts.

Map enthusiasts have many different motivations for their collecting. They may wish to create a fine display of framed maps along the hallway of their home for everyone to enjoy, or they may wish to add a studious perspective to their office. When hung on the wall a well-framed map or chart adds a touch of distinction to a work environment, that may be just that little bit more conducive to business. Antique maps are among the most enduring collectable works, enjoyed for their decorative as well as informative aspect. They are also excellent investment items, as everyone is interested in the early charting of the world.

Perhaps the collector will secrete the maps in special conservation storage - to be brought out on rainy days, or presented for the edification of captive visitors and family members, and peered over with a magnifying glass. The narrative of voyages and discoveries are encompassed within the outlines of the countries and the beautiful decoration of the vignettes (engraved views) and borders and cartouches (title pieces) reveal hours of painstaking artistry. The finely engraved charting of coastlines, as well as being indicative of the progress of mankind, also sometimes revealed through their inaccuracy, the competitive and artistic nature of their creators!

Particularly sought after are the beautifully embellished antique double-sphere world maps; but some collectors prefer the obscure and frequently bizarre maps, particularly those featuring the last areas of the world to be accurately charted which show the assumptions of engravers and cartographers in the interim period. The varying coastal outlines of the west coast of Canada and the east coast of Australia were among the last great land masses to be correctly charted. Maps showing California as an island are also eminently collectable.

Earlier maps show the large island continent of Australia as an odd sort of land mass, attached perilously to the tip of New Guinea and either lacking an eastern seaboard, or with the coastline widely exaggerated in its projection into the Pacific Ocean. The maps from the late eighteenth century in contrast, are a credit to the perseverance of Captain James Cook on his voyages across the Pacific to discover the east coast of this great south land. The accuracy of his eventual charting of both Australia and New Zealand is marvelled at today.

The early maps of the South Pole and Antarctica regions showed for centuries a large land mass, assumed to exist long before its discovery if only because it must surely prevent the unbalancing of a global world where the northern lands, particularly Europe, were well-mapped and relatively densely populated.

As with other historical documents, the price of a map depends largely on its age, rarity, and condition. The first maps, printed from woodblocks, date from the late 1400's. Originally produced as woodcuts, they were later engraved onto copper plates for greater longevity of the base to print from, and for printing with more finesse of detail.

After many years of engraving on copper plates in Italy for printmaking, from the middle of the sixteenth century when the centre of map production moved there from Germany, copper plate engraving superceded woodcuts in the field of map-making. It proved particularly successful in this field. In the case of some maps, the relatively soft copper plate was beaten flat from the back and re-engraved with updated information or details of a new publisher over a period of up to 150 years after initial production. Different states of an engraving assist in determining the source and publication date of a map or print.

Right from the beginning, printed maps were regarded as collector's items: richly embellished, decorative maps were presented to royalty and visiting dignitaries, even during the Middle Ages. The early voyages of discovery were often funded by royalty who were subsequently presented with a wonderfully decorative hand-coloured map detailing the new chartings from the journey.

Antique maps and charts, as with other antiques works of art, are far more pleasurable as investment options than committing finances to stocks and shares or investment funds. The ongoing enjoyment derived from gazing upon them enriches by more than the financial aspect. A good quality rare map is undeniably a plausible investment option. As the demand for rare maps and charts increases and the supply ever decreases, their value inevitably appreciates, particularly with wise selection of the most scarce and the very best affordable.

Whilst the cost of an individual map will vary considerably, its impact and enjoyment won't depend on the price. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder! Antique maps can be obtained for relatively little outlay; it depends on where you want to start. For the more discerning or scholarly collector, the grand and rarer images usually are obtainable for a proportionately higher outlay. Although the value depends on an item's rarity, quality and condition, a careful and diligent collector can often find a bargain, which will be an enduring source of great delight and satisfaction.

As in all things, the greatest appreciation in value of an investment comes with careful purchase of the best quality, - particularly if rare and in high demand. The most enjoyment on the other hand, is derived when the purchase has special personal value; its value to the recipient probably would eclipse investment potential!

The final decision to purchase your first (or fiftieth!) antique map should be dependent on your own individual taste and requirements. Some collectors like their maps to be coloured, whilst others are 'purists', preferring only original colouring or even collecting only black-and-white printed maps. Whilst many maps did have contemporary (of the period) colour, the later addition of watercolour embellishment certainly adds decorative appeal to many which were published and released uncoloured. Contrary to expectations, the addition of colouring often adds to their value if it is complimentary to the style and period of the work. The same applies to most antique lithographs and engravings.

If you are not sure of the authenticity of a work, as with any subject, contact a reputable dealer. Scarcity of a particular map is also most easily gauged by talking to an established antique map dealer, who should be aware of what periodically becomes available, either between dealers, at auctions, or these days, on the internet. They know from experience just how difficult it can be to locate a particular antique map or chart.

Unfortunately, it is almost impossible to tell exactly how many prints were made of a particular map. Some more important works such as atlases and journals or portfolios on a well-funded expedition included a list of subscribers when originally published. These were the royal and otherwise 'notable' patrons who contributed funds to enable the information to be compiled and the map subsequently to be engraved, (and who were usually presented with an exceptionally embellished copy of the work). In these cases this provides a clue only as to the minimum number of copies produced. In some cases insolvency resulted in less than the subscribed number of maps being printed by the publisher.